.. _views_chapter: Views ===== A :term:`view` is a callable which is invoked when a request enters your application. :mod:`repoze.bfg's` primary job is to find and call a view when a :term:`request` reaches it. The view's return value must implement the :term:`WebOb` ``Response`` object interface. .. _function_as_view: Defining a View as a Function ----------------------------- The easiest way to define a view is to create a function that accepts two arguments: :term:`context`, and :term:`request`. For example, this is a hello world view implemented as a function: .. code-block:: python :linenos: from webob import Response def hello_world(context, request): return Response('Hello world!') The :term:`context` and :term:`request` arguments passed to a view function can be defined as follows: context An instance of a model found via graph :term:`traversal` or :term:`URL dispatch`. request A WebOb request object representing the current WSGI request. .. _class_as_view: Defining a View as a Class -------------------------- .. note:: This feature is new as of :mod:`repoze.bfg` 0.8.1. When a view callable is a class, the calling semantics are slightly different than when it is a function or another non-class callable. When a view is a class, the class' ``__init__`` is called with the context and the request parameters. As a result, an instance of the class is created. Subsequently, that instance's ``__call__`` method is invoked with no parameters. The class' ``__call__`` method must return a response. This provides behavior similar to a Zope 'browser view' (Zope 'browser views' are typically classes instead of simple callables). So the simplest class that can be a view must have: - an ``__init__`` method that accepts a ``context`` and a ``request`` as positional arguments. - a ``__call__`` method that accepts no parameters and returns a response. For example: .. code-block:: python :linenos: from webob import Response class MyView(object): def __init__(self, context, request): self.context = context self.request = request def __call__(self): return Response('hello from %r!' % self.context) The context and request objects passed to ``__init__`` are the same types of objects as described in :ref:`function_as_view`. The Response ------------ A view callable must return an object that implements the :term:`WebOb` ``Response`` interface. The easiest way to return something that implements this interface is to return a ``webob.Response`` object. But any object that has the following attributes will work: status The HTTP status code (including the name) for the response. E.g. ``200 OK`` or ``401 Unauthorized``. headerlist A sequence of tuples representing the list of headers that should be set in the response. E.g. ``[('Content-Type', 'text/html'), ('Content-Length', '412')]`` app_iter An iterable representing the body of the response. This can be a list, e.g. ``['Hello world!']`` or it can be a filelike object, or any other sort of iterable. If a view happens to return something to the :mod:`repoze.bfg` publisher that does not implement this interface, the publisher will raise an error. .. _mapping_views_to_urls_using_zcml_section: Mapping Views to URLs Using ZCML -------------------------------- You may associate a view with a URL by adding information to your :term:`application registry` via :term:`ZCML` in your ``configure.zcml`` file using a ``view`` declaration. .. code-block:: xml :linenos: The above maps the ``.views.hello_world`` view function to :term:`context` objects which are instances (or subclasses) of the Python class represented by ``.models.Hello`` when the *view name* is ``hello.html``. .. note:: Values prefixed with a period (``.``) for the ``for`` and ``view`` attributes of a ``view`` (such as those above) mean "relative to the Python package directory in which this :term:`ZCML` file is stored". So if the above ``view`` declaration was made inside a ``configure.zcml`` file that lived in the ``hello`` package, you could replace the relative ``.models.Hello`` with the absolute ``hello.models.Hello``; likewise you could replace the relative ``.views.hello_world`` with the absolute ``hello.views.hello_world``. Either the relative or absolute form is functionally equivalent. It's often useful to use the relative form, in case your package's name changes. It's also shorter to type. You can also declare a *default view* for a model type: .. code-block:: xml :linenos: A *default view* has no ``name`` attribute. When a :term:`context` is traversed and there is no *view name* in the request, the *default view* is the view that is used. You can also declare that a view is good for any model type by using the special ``*`` character in the ``for`` attribute: .. code-block:: xml :linenos: This indicates that when :mod:`repoze.bfg` identifies that the *view name* is ``hello.html`` against *any* :term:`context`, this view will be called. A ZCML ``view`` declaration's ``view`` attribute can also name a class. In this case, the rules described in :ref:`class_as_view` apply for the class which is named. The ``view`` ZCML Directive ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ The ``view`` ZCML directive has these possible attributes: view The Python dotted-path name to the view callable. for A Python dotted-path name representing the Python class that the :term:`context` must be an instance of, *or* the :term:`interface` that the :term:`context` must provide in order for this view to be found and called. name The *view name*. Read and understand :ref:`traversal_chapter` to understand the concept of a view name. permission The name of a *permission* that the user must possess in order to call the view. See :ref:`view_security_section` for more information about view security and permissions. request_type This value can either be one of the strings 'GET', 'POST', 'PUT', 'DELETE', or 'HEAD' representing an HTTP method, *or* it may be Python dotted-path string representing the :term:`interface` that the :term:`request` must have in order for this view to be found and called. See :ref:`view_request_types_section` for more information about request types. .. _mapping_views_to_urls_using_a_decorator_section: Mapping Views to URLs Using a Decorator --------------------------------------- If you're allergic to reading and writing :term:`ZCML`, or you're just more comfortable defining your view declarations using Python, you may use the ``repoze.bfg.view.bfg_view`` decorator to associate your view functions with URLs instead of using :term:`ZCML` for the same purpose. ``repoze.bfg.view.bfg_view`` can be used to associate ``for``, ``name``, ``permission`` and ``request_type`` information -- as done via the equivalent ZCML -- with a function that acts as a :mod:`repoze.bfg` view. To make :mod:`repoze.bfg` process your ``bfg_view`` declarations, you *must* insert the following boilerplate into your application's ``configure.zcml``:: After you do so, you will not need to use any other ZCML to configure :mod:`repoze.bfg` view declarations. Instead, you will use a decorator to do this work. .. warning:: using this feature tends to slows down application startup slightly, as more work is performed at application startup to scan for view declarations. Also, if you use decorators, it means that other people will not be able to override your view declarations externally using ZCML: this is a common requirement if you're developing an exensible application (e.g. a framework). The ``bfg_view`` Decorator ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ ``repoze.bfg.view.bfg_view`` is a decorator which allows Python code to make view registrations instead of using ZCML for the same purpose. An example might reside in a bfg application module ``views.py``: .. code-block:: python :linenos: from models import MyModel from repoze.bfg.view import bfg_view from repoze.bfg.chameleon_zpt import render_template_to_response @bfg_view(name='my_view', request_type='POST', for_=MyModel, permission='read') def my_view(context, request): return render_template_to_response('templates/my.pt') Using this decorator as above replaces the need to add this ZCML to your application registry: .. code-block:: xml :linenos: All arguments to ``bfg_view`` are optional. If ``name`` is not supplied, the empty string is used (implying the default view). If ``request_type`` is not supplied, the interface ``None`` is used, implying any request type. If ``for_`` is not supplied, the interface ``zope.interface.Interface`` (which matches any model) is used. ``for_`` can also name a class, like its ZCML brother. If ``permission`` is not supplied, no permission is registered for this view (it's accessible by any caller). All arguments may be omitted. For example: .. code-block:: python :linenos: from webob import Response @bfg_view() def my_view(context, request): """ My view """ return Response() Such a registration as the one directly above implies that the view name will be ``my_view``, registered ``for_`` any model type, using no permission, registered against requests which implement any request method or interface. If your view callable is a class, the ``bfg_view`` decorator can also be used as a class decorator in Python 2.6 and better (Python 2.5 and below do not support class decorators). All the arguments to the decorator are the same when applied against a class as when they are applied against a function. For example: .. code-block:: python :linenos: from webob import Response from repoze.bfg.view import bfg_view @bfg_view() class MyView(object): def __init__(self, context, request): self.context = context self.request = request def __call__(self): return Response('hello from %s!' % self.context) You can use the ``bfg_view`` decorator as a simple callable to manually decorate classes in Python 2.5 and below (without the decorator syntactic sugar), if you wish: .. code-block:: python :linenos: from webob import Response from repoze.bfg.view import bfg_view class MyView(object): def __init__(self, context, request): self.context = context self.request = request def __call__(self): return Response('hello from %s!' % self.context) my_view = bfg_view()(MyView) .. _using_model_interfaces: Using Model Interfaces ---------------------- Instead of registering your views ``for`` a Python model *class*, you can optionally register a view for an :term:`interface`. Since an interface can be attached arbitrarily to any model instance (as opposed to its identity being implied by only its class), associating a view with an interface can provide more flexibility for sharing a single view between two or more different implementations of a model type. For example, if two model object instances of different Python class types share the same interface, you can use the same view against each of them. In order to make use of interfaces in your application during view dispatch, you must create an interface and mark up your model classes or instances with interface declarations that refer to this interface. To attach an interface to a model *class*, you define the interface and use the ``zope.interface.implements`` function to associate the interface with the class. .. code-block:: python :linenos: from zope.interface import Interface from zope.interface import implements class IHello(Interface): """ A marker interface """ class Hello(object): implements(IHello) To attach an interface to a model *instance*, you define the interface and use the ``zope.interface.alsoProvides`` function to associate the interface with the instance. This function mutates the instance in such a way that the interface is attached to it. .. code-block:: python :linenos: from zope.interface import Interface from zope.interface import alsoProvides class IHello(Interface): """ A marker interface """ class Hello(object): pass def make_hello(): hello = Hello() alsoProvides(hello, IHello) return hello Regardless of how you associate an interface with a model instance or a model class, the resulting ZCML to associate that interface with a view is the same. Assuming the above code that defines an ``IHello`` interface lives in the root of your application, and its module is named "models.py", the below interface declaration will associate the ``.views.hello_world`` view with models that implement (aka provide) this interface. .. code-block:: xml :linenos: Any time a model that is determined to be the :term:`context` provides this interface, and a view named ``hello.html`` is looked up against it as per the URL, the ``.views.hello_world`` view will be invoked. Note that views registered against a model class take precedence over views registered for any interface the model class implements when an ambiguity arises. If a view is registered for both the class type of the context and an interface implemented by the context's class, the view registered for the context's class will "win". See :term:`Interface` in the glossary to find more information about interfaces. .. _view_request_types_section: Standard View Request Types --------------------------- You can optionally add a *request_type* attribute to your ``view`` declaration or ``bfg_view`` decorator, which indicates what "kind" of request the view should be used for. If the request type for a request doesn't match the request type that a view defines as its ``request_type`` argument, that view won't be called. The request type can be one of the strings 'GET', 'POST', 'PUT', 'DELETE', or 'HEAD'. When the request type is one of these strings, the view will only be called when the HTTP method of a request matches this type. For example, the following bit of ZCML will match an HTTP POST request: .. code-block:: xml :linenos: A ``bfg_view`` decorator that does the same as the above ZCML ``view`` declaration which matches only on HTTP POST might look something like: .. code-block:: python :linenos: from myproject.models import Hello from webob import Response @bfg_view(for=Hello, request_type='POST') def handle_post(context, request): return Response('hello' The above examples register views for the POST request type, so it will only be called if the request's HTTP method is ``POST``. Even if all the other specifiers match (e.g. the model type is the class ``.models.Hello``, and the view_name is ``handle_post``), if the request verb is not POST, it will not be invoked. This provides a way to ensure that views you write are only called via specific HTTP verbs. The least specific request type is ``None``. All requests are guaranteed to implement this request type. It is also the default request type for views that omit a ``request_type`` argument. Custom View Request Types ------------------------- You can make use of *custom* view request types by attaching an :term:`interface` to the request and specifying this interface in the ``request_type`` parameter. For example, you might want to make use of simple "content negotiation", only invoking a particular view if the request has a content-type of 'application/json'. For information about using interface to specify a request type, see :ref:`using_an_event_to_vary_the_request_type`. .. _view_security_section: View Security ------------- If a :term:`authentication policy` (and a :term:`authorization policy`) is active, any :term:`permission` attached to a ``view`` declaration will be consulted to ensure that the currently authenticated user possesses that permission against the context before the view function is actually called. Here's an example of specifying a permission in a ``view`` declaration: .. code-block:: xml :linenos: When an authentication policy is enabled, this view will be protected with the ``add`` permission. The view will *not be called* if the user does not possess the ``add`` permission relative to the current :term:`context` and an authorization policy is enabled. Instead an HTTP ``Unauthorized`` status will be returned to the client. .. note:: See the :ref:`security_chapter` chapter to find out how to turn on an authentication policy. .. note:: Packages such as :term:`repoze.who` are capable of intercepting an ``Unauthorized`` response and displaying a form that asks a user to authenticate. Use this kind of package to ask the user for authentication credentials. Using a View to Do A HTTP Redirect ---------------------------------- You can issue an HTTP redirect from within a view by returning a slightly different response. .. code-block:: python :linenos: from webob.exc import HTTPFound def myview(context, request): return HTTPFound(location='http://example.com') All exception types from the :mod:`webob.exc` module implement the ``IResponse`` interface; any can be returned as the response from a view. See :term:`WebOb` for the documentation for this module; it includes other response types for Unauthorized, etc. .. _static_resources_section: Serving Static Resources Using a View ------------------------------------- Using the :mod:`repoze.bfg.view` ``static`` helper class is the preferred way to serve static resources (like JavaScript and CSS files) within :mod:`repoze.bfg`. This class creates a callable that is capable acting as a :mod:`repoze.bfg` view which serves static resources from a directory. For instance, to serve files within a directory located on your filesystem at ``/path/to/static/dir`` mounted at the URL path ``/static`` in your application, create an instance of :mod:`repoze.bfg.view` 's ``static`` class inside a ``static.py`` file in your application root as below. .. code-block:: python :linenos: from repoze.bfg.view import static static_view = static('/path/to/static/dir') Subsequently, wire this view up to be accessible as ``/static`` using ZCML in your application's ``configure.zcml`` against either the class or interface that represents your root object. .. code-block:: xml :linenos: In this case, ``.models.Root`` refers to the class of which your :mod:`repoze.bfg` application's root object is an instance. .. note:: You can also give a ``for`` of ``*`` if you want the name ``static`` to be accessible as the static view against any model. This will also allow ``/static/foo.js`` to work, but it will allow for ``/anything/static/foo.js`` too, as long as ``anything`` itself is resolveable. Now put your static files (JS, etc) on your filesystem in the directory represented as ``/path/to/static/dir``. After this is done, you should be able to view the static files in this directory via a browser at URLs prefixed with ``/static/``, for instance ``/static/foo.js`` will return the file ``/path/to/static/dir/foo.js``. The static directory may contain subdirectories recursively, and any subdirectories may hold files; these will be resolved by the static view as you would expect. .. note:: To ensure that model objects contained in the root don't "shadow" your static view (model objects take precedence during traversal), or to ensure that your root object's ``__getitem__`` is never called when a static resource is requested, you can refer to your static resources as registered above in URLs as, e.g. ``/@@static/foo.js``. This is completely equivalent to ``/static/foo.js``. See :ref:`traversal_chapter` for information about "goggles" (``@@``). .. note:: Under the hood, the ``repoze.bfg.view.static`` class employs the ``urlparser.StaticURLParser`` WSGI application to serve static files. See `the Paste documentation for urlparser `_ for more information about ``urlparser.StaticURLParser``. Using Views to Handle Form Submissions (Unicode and Character Set Issues) ------------------------------------------------------------------------- Most web applications need to accept form submissions from web browsers and various other clients. In :mod:`repoze.bfg`, form submission handling logic is always part of a :term:`view`. For a general overview of how to handle form submission data using the :term:`WebOb` API, see `"Query and POST variables" within the WebOb documentation `_. :mod:`repoze.bfg` defers to WebOb for its request and response implementations, and handling form submission data is a property of the request implementation. Understanding WebOb's request API is the key to understanding how to process form submission data. There are some defaults that you need to be aware of when trying to handle form submission data in a :mod:`repoze.bfg` view. Because having high-order (non-ASCII) characters in data contained within form submissions is exceedingly common, and because the UTF-8 encoding is the most common encoding used on the web for non-ASCII character data, and because working and storing Unicode values is much saner than working with an storing bytestrings, :mod:`repoze.bfg` configures the :term:`WebOb` request machinery to attempt to decode form submission values into Unicode from the UTF-8 character set implicitly. This implicit decoding happens when view code obtains form field values via the :term:`WebOb` ``request.params``, ``request.GET``, or ``request.POST`` APIs. For example, let's assume that the following form page is served up to a browser client, and its ``action`` points at some :mod:`repoze.bfg` view code: .. code-block:: xml The ``myview`` view code in the :mod:`repoze.bfg` application *must* expect that the values returned by ``request.params`` will be of type ``unicode``, as opposed to type ``str``. The following will work to accept a form post from the above form: .. code-block:: python def myview(context, request): firstname = request.params['firstname'] lastname = request.params['lastname'] But the following ``myview`` view code *may not* work, as it tries to decode already-decoded (``unicode``) values obtained from ``request.params``: .. code-block:: python def myview(context, request): # the .decode('utf-8') will break below if there are any high-order # characters in the firstname or lastname firstname = request.params['firstname'].decode('utf-8') lastname = request.params['lastname'].decode('utf-8') For implicit decoding to work reliably, you must ensure that every form you render that posts to a :mod:`repoze.bfg` view is rendered via a response that has a ``;charset=UTF-8`` in its ``Content-Type`` header; or, as in the form above, with a ``meta http-equiv`` tag that implies that the charset is UTF-8 within the HTML ``head`` of the page containing the form. This must be done explicitly because all known browser clients assume that they should encode form data in the character set implied by ``Content-Type`` value of the response containing the form when subsequently submitting that form; there is no other generally accepted way to tell browser clients which charset to use to encode form data. If you do not specify an encoding explicitly, the browser client will choose to encode form data in its default character set before submitting it. The browser client may have a non-UTF-8 default encoding. If such a request is handled by your view code, when the form submission data is encoded in a non-UTF8 charset, eventually the WebOb request code accessed within your view will throw an error when it can't decode some high-order character encoded in another character set within form data e.g. when ``request.params['somename']`` is accessed. If you are using the ``webob.Response`` class to generate a response, or if you use the ``render_template``* templating APIs, the UTF-8 charset is set automatically as the default via the ``Content-Type`` header. If you return a ``Content-Type`` header without an explicit charset, a WebOb request will add a ``;charset=utf-8`` trailer to the ``Content-Type`` header value for you for response content types that are textual (e.g. ``text/html``, ``application/xml``, etc) as it is rendered. If you are using your own response object, you will need to ensure you do this yourself. To avoid implicit form submission value decoding, so that the values returned from ``request.params``, ``request.GET`` and ``request.POST`` are returned as bytestrings rather than Unicode, add the following to your application's ``configure.zcml``:: You can then control form post data decoding "by hand" as necessary. For example, when this subscriber is active, the second example above will work unconditionally as long as you ensure that your forms are rendered in a request that has a ``;charset=utf-8`` stanza on its ``Content-Type`` header. .. note:: The behavior that form values are decoded from UTF-8 to Unicode implicitly was introduced in :mod:`repoze.bfg` 0.7.0. Previous versions of :mod:`repoze.bfg` performed no implicit decoding of form values (the default was to treat values as bytestrings). .. note:: Only the *values* of request params obtained via ``request.params``, ``request.GET`` or ``request.POST`` are decoded to Unicode objects implicitly in :mod:`repoze.bfg`'s default configuration. The keys are still strings.