.. index::
single: security
.. _security_chapter:
Security
========
:mod:`pyramid` provides an optional declarative authorization
system that prevents a :term:`view` from being invoked when the user
represented by credentials in the :term:`request` does not have an
appropriate level of access within a particular :term:`context`.
Here's how it works at a high level:
- A :term:`request` is generated when a user visits our application.
- Based on the request, a :term:`context` is located through
:term:`context finding`. A context is located differently depending
on whether the application uses :term:`traversal` or :term:`URL
dispatch`, but a context is ultimately found in either case. See
:ref:`contextfinding_chapter` for more information about context
finding.
- A :term:`view callable` is located by :term:`view lookup` using the
context as well as other attributes of the request.
- If an :term:`authentication policy` is in effect, it is passed the
request; it returns some number of :term:`principal` identifiers.
- If an :term:`authorization policy` is in effect and the :term:`view
configuration` associated with the view callable that was found has
a :term:`permission` associated with it, the authorization policy is
passed the :term:`context`, some number of :term:`principal`
identifiers returned by the authentication policy, and the
:term:`permission` associated with the view; it will allow or deny
access.
- If the authorization policy allows access, the view callable is
invoked.
- If the authorization policy denies access, the view callable is not
invoked; instead the :term:`forbidden view` is invoked.
Authorization is enabled by modifying your application to include an
:term:`authentication policy` and :term:`authorization policy`.
:mod:`pyramid` comes with a variety of implementations of these
policies. To provide maximal flexibility, :mod:`pyramid` also
allows you to create custom authentication policies and authorization
policies.
.. index::
single: authorization policy
Enabling an Authorization Policy
--------------------------------
By default, :mod:`pyramid` enables no authorization policy. All
views are accessible by completely anonymous users. In order to begin
protecting views from execution based on security settings, you need
to enable an authorization policy.
You can enable an authorization policy imperatively, or declaratively
via ZCML.
Enabling an Authorization Policy Imperatively
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
Passing an ``authorization_policy`` argument to the constructor of the
:class:`pyramid.configuration.Configurator` class enables an
authorization policy.
You must also enable an :term:`authentication policy` in order to
enable the authorization policy. This is because authorization, in
general, depends upon authentication. Use the
``authentication_policy`` argument to the
:class:`pyramid.configuration.Configurator` class during
application setup to specify an authentication policy.
For example:
.. ignore-next-block
.. code-block:: python
:linenos:
from pyramid.configuration import Configurator
from pyramid.authentication import AuthTktAuthenticationPolicy
from pyramid.authorization import ACLAuthorizationPolicy
authentication_policy = AuthTktAuthenticationPolicy('seekrit')
authorization_policy = ACLAuthorizationPolicy()
config = Configurator(authentication_policy=authentication_policy,
authorization_policy=authorization_policy)
.. note:: the ``authentication_policy`` and ``authorization_policy``
arguments may also be passed to the Configurator as :ref:`dotted
Python name` values, each representing the dotted name path to a
suitable implementation global defined at Python module scope.
The above configuration enables a policy which compares the value of
an "auth ticket" cookie passed in the request's environment which
contains a reference to a single :term:`principal` against the
principals present in any :term:`ACL` found in model data when
attempting to call some :term:`view`.
While it is possible to mix and match different authentication and
authorization policies, it is an error to pass an authentication
policy without the authorization policy or vice versa to a
:term:`Configurator` constructor.
See also the :mod:`pyramid.authorization` and
:mod:`pyramid.authentication` modules for alternate implementations
of authorization and authentication policies.
Enabling an Authorization Policy Via ZCML
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
If you'd rather use :term:`ZCML` to specify an authorization policy
than imperative configuration, modify the ZCML file loaded by your
application (usually named ``configure.zcml``) to enable an
authorization policy.
For example, to enable a policy which compares the value of an "auth
ticket" cookie passed in the request's environment which contains a
reference to a single :term:`principal` against the principals present
in any :term:`ACL` found in model data when attempting to call some
:term:`view`, modify your ``configure.zcml`` to look something like
this:
.. code-block:: xml
:linenos:
"Under the hood", these statements cause an instance of the class
:class:`pyramid.authentication.AuthTktAuthenticationPolicy` to be
injected as the :term:`authentication policy` used by this application
and an instance of the class
:class:`pyramid.authorization.ACLAuthorizationPolicy` to be
injected as the :term:`authorization policy` used by this application.
:mod:`pyramid` ships with a number of authorization and
authentication policy ZCML directives that should prove useful. See
:ref:`authentication_policies_directives_section` and
:ref:`authorization_policies_directives_section` for more information.
.. index::
single: permissions
single: protecting views
.. _protecting_views:
Protecting Views with Permissions
---------------------------------
To protect a :term:`view callable` from invocation based on a user's
security settings in a :term:`context`, you must pass a
:term:`permission` to :term:`view configuration`. Permissions are
usually just strings, and they have no required composition: you can
name permissions whatever you like.
For example, the following declaration protects the view named
``add_entry.html`` when invoked against a ``Blog`` context with the
``add`` permission:
.. code-block:: xml
:linenos:
The equivalent view registration including the ``add`` permission name
may be performed via the ``@bfg_view`` decorator:
.. ignore-next-block
.. code-block:: python
:linenos:
from pyramid.view import bfg_view
from models import Blog
@bfg_view(context=Blog, name='add_entry.html', permission='add')
def blog_entry_add_view(request):
""" Add blog entry code goes here """
pass
Or the same thing can be done using the
:meth:`pyramid.configuration.Configurator.add_view` method:
.. ignore-next-block
.. code-block:: python
:linenos:
config.add_view(blog_entry_add_view,
context=Blog, name='add_entry.html', permission='add')
As a result of any of these various view configuration statements, if
an authorization policy is in place when the view callable is found
during normal application operations, the requesting user will need to
possess the ``add`` permission against the :term:`context` to be able
to invoke the ``blog_entry_add_view`` view. If he does not, the
:term:`Forbidden view` will be invoked.
.. _setting_a_default_permission:
Setting a Default Permission
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
If a permission is not supplied to a view configuration, the
registered view always be executable by entirely anonymous users: any
authorization policy in effect is ignored.
In support of making it easier to configure applications which are
"secure by default", :mod:`pyramid` allows you to configure a
*default* permission. If supplied, the default permission is used as
the permission string to all view registrations which don't otherwise
name a ``permission`` argument.
These APIs are in support of configuring a default permission for an
application:
- The ``default_permission`` constructor argument to the
:mod:`pyramid.configuration.Configurator` constructor.
- The
:meth:`pyramid.configuration.Configurator.set_default_permission`
method.
- The :ref:`default_permission_directive` ZCML directive.
When a default permission is registered, if a view configuration
*does* name its own permission, the default permission is ignored for
that view registration, and the view-configuration-named permission is
used.
.. note:: All APIs and ZCML directives related to default permissions
are new in :mod:`pyramid` 1.3.
.. index::
single: ACL
single: access control list
.. _assigning_acls:
Assigning ACLs to your Model Objects
------------------------------------
When the default :mod:`pyramid` :term:`authorization policy`
determines whether a user possesses a particular permission in a
:term:`context`, it examines the :term:`ACL` associated with the
context. An ACL is associated with a context by virtue of the
``__acl__`` attribute of the model object representing the
:term:`context`. This attribute can be defined on the model
*instance* if you need instance-level security, or it can be defined
on the model *class* if you just need type-level security.
For example, an ACL might be attached to the model for a blog via its
class:
.. code-block:: python
:linenos:
from pyramid.security import Everyone
from pyramid.security import Allow
class Blog(object):
__acl__ = [
(Allow, Everyone, 'view'),
(Allow, 'group:editors', 'add'),
(Allow, 'group:editors', 'edit'),
]
Or, if your models are persistent, an ACL might be specified via the
``__acl__`` attribute of an *instance* of a model:
.. code-block:: python
:linenos:
from pyramid.security import Everyone
from pyramid.security import Allow
class Blog(object):
pass
blog = Blog()
blog.__acl__ = [
(Allow, Everyone, 'view'),
(Allow, 'group:editors', 'add'),
(Allow, 'group:editors', 'edit'),
]
Whether an ACL is attached to a model's class or an instance of the
model itself, the effect is the same. It is useful to decorate
individual model instances with an ACL (as opposed to just decorating
their class) in applications such as "CMS" systems where fine-grained
access is required on an object-by-object basis.
.. index::
single: ACE
single: access control entry
Elements of an ACL
------------------
Here's an example ACL:
.. code-block:: python
:linenos:
from pyramid.security import Everyone
from pyramid.security import Allow
__acl__ = [
(Allow, Everyone, 'view'),
(Allow, 'group:editors', 'add'),
(Allow, 'group:editors', 'edit'),
]
The example ACL indicates that the
:data:`pyramid.security.Everyone` principal -- a special
system-defined principal indicating, literally, everyone -- is allowed
to view the blog, the ``group:editors`` principal is allowed to add to
and edit the blog.
Each element of an ACL is an :term:`ACE` or access control entry.
For example, in the above code block, there are three ACEs: ``(Allow,
Everyone, 'view')``, ``(Allow, 'group:editors', 'add')``, and
``(Allow, 'group:editors', 'edit')``.
The first element of any ACE is either
:data:`pyramid.security.Allow`, or
:data:`pyramid.security.Deny`, representing the action to take when
the ACE matches. The second element is a :term:`principal`. The
third argument is a permission or sequence of permission names.
A principal is usually a user id, however it also may be a group id if
your authentication system provides group information and the
effective :term:`authentication policy` policy is written to respect
group information. For example, the
:class:`pyramid.authentication.RepozeWho1AuthenicationPolicy`
enabled by the ``repozewho1authenticationpolicy`` ZCML directive
respects group information if you configure it with a ``callback``.
See :ref:`authentication_policies_directives_section` for more
information about the ``callback`` attribute.
Each ACE in an ACL is processed by an authorization policy *in the
order dictated by the ACL*. So if you have an ACL like this:
.. code-block:: python
:linenos:
from pyramid.security import Everyone
from pyramid.security import Allow
from pyramid.security import Deny
__acl__ = [
(Allow, Everyone, 'view'),
(Deny, Everyone, 'view'),
]
The default authorization policy will *allow* everyone the view
permission, even though later in the ACL you have an ACE that denies
everyone the view permission. On the other hand, if you have an ACL
like this:
.. code-block:: python
:linenos:
from pyramid.security import Everyone
from pyramid.security import Allow
from pyramid.security import Deny
__acl__ = [
(Deny, Everyone, 'view'),
(Allow, Everyone, 'view'),
]
The authorization policy will deny everyone the view permission, even
though later in the ACL is an ACE that allows everyone.
The third argument in an ACE can also be a sequence of permission
names instead of a single permission name. So instead of creating
multiple ACEs representing a number of different permission grants to
a single ``group:editors`` group, we can collapse this into a single
ACE, as below.
.. code-block:: python
:linenos:
from pyramid.security import Everyone
from pyramid.security import Allow
__acl__ = [
(Allow, Everyone, 'view'),
(Allow, 'group:editors', ('add', 'edit')),
]
.. index::
single: principal
single: principal names
Special Principal Names
-----------------------
Special principal names exist in the :mod:`pyramid.security`
module. They can be imported for use in your own code to populate
ACLs, e.g. :data:`pyramid.security.Everyone`.
:data:`pyramid.security.Everyone`
Literally, everyone, no matter what. This object is actually a
string "under the hood" (``system.Everyone``). Every user "is" the
principal named Everyone during every request, even if a security
policy is not in use.
:data:`pyramid.security.Authenticated`
Any user with credentials as determined by the current security
policy. You might think of it as any user that is "logged in".
This object is actually a string "under the hood"
(``system.Authenticated``).
.. index::
single: permission names
single: special permission names
Special Permissions
-------------------
Special permission names exist in the :mod:`pyramid.security`
module. These can be imported for use in ACLs.
.. _all_permissions:
:data:`pyramid.security.ALL_PERMISSIONS`
An object representing, literally, *all* permissions. Useful in an
ACL like so: ``(Allow, 'fred', ALL_PERMISSIONS)``. The
``ALL_PERMISSIONS`` object is actually a stand-in object that has a
``__contains__`` method that always returns ``True``, which, for all
known authorization policies, has the effect of indicating that a
given principal "has" any permission asked for by the system.
.. index::
single: special ACE
single: ACE (special)
Special ACEs
------------
A convenience :term:`ACE` is defined representing a deny to everyone
of all permissions in :data:`pyramid.security.DENY_ALL`. This ACE
is often used as the *last* ACE of an ACL to explicitly cause
inheriting authorization policies to "stop looking up the traversal
tree" (effectively breaking any inheritance). For example, an ACL
which allows *only* ``fred`` the view permission in a particular
traversal context despite what inherited ACLs may say when the default
authorization policy is in effect might look like so:
.. code-block:: python
:linenos:
from pyramid.security import Allow
from pyramid.security import DENY_ALL
__acl__ = [ (Allow, 'fred', 'view'), DENY_ALL ]
"Under the hood", the :data:`pyramid.security.DENY_ALL` ACE equals
the following:
.. code-block:: python
from pyramid.security import ALL_PERMISSIONS
__acl__ = [ (Deny, Everyone, ALL_PERMISSIONS) ]
.. index::
single: ACL inheritance
pair: location-aware; security
ACL Inheritance and Location-Awareness
--------------------------------------
While the default :term:`authorization policy` is in place, if a model
object does not have an ACL when it is the context, its *parent* is
consulted for an ACL. If that object does not have an ACL, *its*
parent is consulted for an ACL, ad infinitum, until we've reached the
root and there are no more parents left.
In order to allow the security machinery to perform ACL inheritance,
model objects must provide *location-awareness*. Providing
*location-awareness* means two things: the root object in the graph
must have a ``_name__`` attribute and a ``__parent__`` attribute.
.. code-block:: python
:linenos:
class Blog(object):
__name__ = ''
__parent__ = None
An object with a ``__parent__`` attribute and a ``__name__`` attribute
is said to be *location-aware*. Location-aware objects define an
``__parent__`` attribute which points at their parent object. The
root object's ``__parent__`` is ``None``.
See :ref:`location_module` for documentations of functions which use
location-awareness. See also :ref:`location_aware`.
.. index::
single: forbidden view
Changing the Forbidden View
---------------------------
When :mod:`pyramid` denies a view invocation due to an
authorization denial, the special ``forbidden`` view is invoked. "Out
of the box", this forbidden view is very plain. See
:ref:`changing_the_forbidden_view` within :ref:`hooks_chapter` for
instructions on how to create a custom forbidden view and arrange for
it to be called when view authorization is denied.
.. index::
single: debugging authorization failures
.. _debug_authorization_section:
Debugging View Authorization Failures
-------------------------------------
If your application in your judgment is allowing or denying view
access inappropriately, start your application under a shell using the
``BFG_DEBUG_AUTHORIZATION`` environment variable set to ``1``. For
example::
$ BFG_DEBUG_AUTHORIZATION=1 bin/paster serve myproject.ini
When any authorization takes place during a top-level view rendering,
a message will be logged to the console (to stderr) about what ACE in
which ACL permitted or denied the authorization based on
authentication information.
This behavior can also be turned on in the application ``.ini`` file
by setting the ``debug_authorization`` key to ``true`` within the
application's configuration section, e.g.::
[app:main]
use = egg:MyProject#app
debug_authorization = true
With this debug flag turned on, the response sent to the browser will
also contain security debugging information in its body.
Debugging Imperative Authorization Failures
-------------------------------------------
The :func:`pyramid.security.has_permission` API is used to check
security within view functions imperatively. It returns instances of
objects that are effectively booleans. But these objects are not raw
``True`` or ``False`` objects, and have information attached to them
about why the permission was allowed or denied. The object will be
one of :data:`pyramid.security.ACLAllowed`,
:data:`pyramid.security.ACLDenied`,
:data:`pyramid.security.Allowed`, or
:data:`pyramid.security.Denied`, as documented in
:ref:`security_module`. At the very minimum these objects will have a
``msg`` attribute, which is a string indicating why the permission was
denied or allowed. Introspecting this information in the debugger or
via print statements when a call to
:func:`pyramid.security.has_permission` fails is often useful.
.. index::
pair: ZCML directive; authentication policy
.. _authentication_policies_directives_section:
Built-In Authentication Policy ZCML Directives
----------------------------------------------
Instead of configuring an authentication policy and authorization
policy imperatively, :mod:`pyramid` ships with a few "pre-chewed"
authentication policy ZCML directives that you can make use of within
your application.
``authtktauthenticationpolicy``
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
When this directive is used, authentication information is obtained
from an "auth ticket" cookie value, assumed to be set by a custom
login form.
An example of its usage, with all attributes fully expanded:
.. code-block:: xml
:linenos:
See :ref:`authtktauthenticationpolicy_directive` for details about
this directive.
``remoteuserauthenticationpolicy``
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
When this directive is used, authentication information is obtained
from a ``REMOTE_USER`` key in the WSGI environment, assumed to
be set by a WSGI server or an upstream middleware component.
An example of its usage, with all attributes fully expanded:
.. code-block:: xml
:linenos:
See :ref:`remoteuserauthenticationpolicy_directive` for detailed
information.
``repozewho1authenticationpolicy``
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
When this directive is used, authentication information is obtained
from a ``repoze.who.identity`` key in the WSGI environment, assumed to
be set by :term:`repoze.who` middleware.
An example of its usage, with all attributes fully expanded:
.. code-block:: xml
:linenos:
See :ref:`repozewho1authenticationpolicy_directive` for detailed
information.
.. index::
pair: ZCML directive; authorization policy
.. _authorization_policies_directives_section:
Built-In Authorization Policy ZCML Directives
---------------------------------------------
``aclauthorizationpolicy``
When this directive is used, authorization information is obtained
from :term:`ACL` objects attached to model instances.
An example of its usage, with all attributes fully expanded:
.. code-block:: xml
:linenos:
In other words, it has no configuration attributes; its existence in a
``configure.zcml`` file enables it.
See :ref:`aclauthorizationpolicy_directive` for detailed information.
.. index::
single: authentication policy (creating)
.. _creating_an_authentication_policy:
Creating Your Own Authentication Policy
---------------------------------------
:mod:`pyramid` ships with a number of useful out-of-the-box
security policies (see :mod:`pyramid.authentication`). However,
creating your own authentication policy is often necessary when you
want to control the "horizontal and vertical" of how your users
authenticate. Doing so is a matter of creating an instance of something
that implements the following interface:
.. code-block:: python
class AuthenticationPolicy(object):
""" An object representing a Pyramid authentication policy. """
def authenticated_userid(self, request):
""" Return the authenticated userid or ``None`` if no
authenticated userid can be found. """
def effective_principals(self, request):
""" Return a sequence representing the effective principals
including the userid and any groups belonged to by the current
user, including 'system' groups such as Everyone and
Authenticated. """
def remember(self, request, principal, **kw):
""" Return a set of headers suitable for 'remembering' the
principal named ``principal`` when set in a response. An
individual authentication policy and its consumers can decide
on the composition and meaning of **kw. """
def forget(self, request):
""" Return a set of headers suitable for 'forgetting' the
current user on subsequent requests. """
After you do so, you can pass an instance of such a class into the
:class:`pyramid.configuration.Configurator` class at configuration
time as ``authentication_policy`` to use it.
.. index::
single: authorization policy (creating)
.. _creating_an_authorization_policy:
Creating Your Own Authorization Policy
--------------------------------------
An authorization policy is a policy that allows or denies access after
a user has been authenticated. By default, :mod:`pyramid` will use
the :class:`pyramid.authorization.ACLAuthorizationPolicy` if an
authentication policy is activated and an authorization policy isn't
otherwise specified.
In some cases, it's useful to be able to use a different
authorization policy than the default
:class:`pyramid.authorization.ACLAuthorizationPolicy`. For
example, it might be desirable to construct an alternate authorization
policy which allows the application to use an authorization mechanism
that does not involve :term:`ACL` objects.
:mod:`pyramid` ships with only a single default authorization
policy, so you'll need to create your own if you'd like to use a
different one. Creating and using your own authorization policy is a
matter of creating an instance of an object that implements the
following interface:
.. code-block:: python
class IAuthorizationPolicy(object):
""" An object representing a Pyramid authorization policy. """
def permits(self, context, principals, permission):
""" Return True if any of the principals is allowed the
permission in the current context, else return False """
def principals_allowed_by_permission(self, context, permission):
""" Return a set of principal identifiers allowed by the
permission """
After you do so, you can pass an instance of such a class into the
:class:`pyramid.configuration.Configurator` class at configuration
time as ``authorization_policy`` to use it.